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Updated 2026-08-01. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
Nicotinamide mononucleotide, abbreviated NMN, is a naturally occurring nucleotide found in the cells of many organisms, including bacteria, plants, and mammals. Its structure consists of a nicotinamide ring attached to a ribose-phosphate group. NMN functions as an intermediate in the NAD+ salvage pathway, a recycling route that regenerates nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide. The enzyme nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase produces NMN from nicotinamide and phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate. A second enzyme, NMN adenylyltransferase, then converts NMN into NAD+.
Dietary sources of NMN include small amounts in certain vegetables, fruits, and other foods, although exact values vary by sample and method. Endogenous NMN concentrations are tightly regulated and often low, making measurement in blood or tissues technically demanding. After oral intake, NMN is thought to be rapidly metabolized in the intestine and liver, and intact NMN may not reach all tissues at high levels. Some rodent studies report increases in tissue NAD+ after oral NMN, while human data remain limited and sometimes rely on blood NAD+ metabolites rather than direct tissue measures.
Research on NMN has focused on aging, metabolic regulation, exercise capacity, and insulin sensitivity, but findings are preliminary. Many human trials are small, short in duration, and use different endpoints, which complicates comparison across studies. No national regulator has approved NMN as a therapeutic drug for any indication. In some countries it is sold as a supplement or research chemical, while other jurisdictions have questioned its status under food or supplement laws. Claims about extending human lifespan or reversing aging are not supported by established clinical evidence.
Nicotinamide mononucleotide, abbreviated NMN, is a nucleotide composed of nicotinamide, ribose, and phosphate. Its structure links nicotinamide to D-ribose 5-phosphate through a glycosidic bond, placing it in the pyridine nucleotide family. The compound exists in alpha and beta anomeric forms, and the beta form is the one used in NAD+ biosynthesis. NMN is not a protein or a hormone; it is a small water-soluble molecule that occurs in living cells as a metabolic intermediate.
Natural sources of NMN include mammals, plants, and microorganisms, where it functions as an intermediate in NAD+ salvage and biosynthesis pathways. In mammals, the enzyme nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase produces NMN from nicotinamide and phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate. NMN is then converted to NAD+ by nicotinamide mononucleotide adenylyltransferase. Some foods contain measurable NMN, but reported amounts vary widely by species, tissue, and analytical method. The extent to which dietary NMN contributes to cellular NAD+ pools remains an open research question.
Chemically, NMN is described by the molecular formula C11H15N2O8P and a molecular mass near 334.22 g/mol. The beta anomer has a CAS Registry Number of 1094-61-7. It is typically supplied as a white to off-white powder for laboratory use. The molecule carries a phosphate group and a positively charged nicotinamide ring, giving it polar and water-soluble character. These properties influence how it is detected, purified, and stored in research and analytical laboratories.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Chemical name | Nicotinamide mononucleotide | Nucleotide intermediate in NAD+ salvage pathway |
| Common abbreviation | NMN | Also written as β-NMN |
| Molecular formula | C11H15N2O8P | Uncharged parent form |
| Molar mass | 334.22 g/mol | Calculated from formula |
| CAS Registry Number | 1094-61-7 | For β-nicotinamide mononucleotide |
Nicotinamide mononucleotide, commonly abbreviated NMN, is a pyridine nucleotide that consists of a nicotinamide ring, a ribose sugar, and a phosphate group. It is an intermediate in the salvage pathway for nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, or NAD+, synthesis. In mammalian cells, the enzyme nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase produces NMN from nicotinamide and phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate. Nicotinamide mononucleotide adenylyltransferases then convert NMN into NAD+. The core structure and enzymatic route are well established in biochemical literature.
The biologically relevant form of NMN is generally the beta anomer, which is recognized by NMN adenylyltransferases. NMN is polar and water soluble, and it does not readily diffuse across lipid membranes without assistance. Whether intact NMN enters cells through a specific transporter remains an open question; some studies propose solute carrier family members, while other work favors extracellular dephosphorylation to nicotinamide riboside followed by uptake. This transport and compartmentalization debate affects how researchers interpret oral administration studies. The distinction between intracellular synthesis and extracellular delivery is central to current discussion.
NAD+ serves as a coenzyme in redox reactions and as a substrate for enzymes involved in DNA repair and cellular signaling. In the salvage pathway, nicotinamide is converted to NMN by the enzyme NAMPT. NMN is then converted to NAD+ by NMNAT enzymes. A separate route links nicotinamide riboside to NMN through phosphorylation. These pathways maintain NAD+ levels, which can decline with age or metabolic stress in some tissues. The relative contribution of circulating NMN to tissue NAD+ remains an active area of study.
Research on NMN includes cell studies, animal experiments, and a growing number of human trials. Many early findings come from mice, where changes in NAD+ levels and metabolic markers have been reported. Human data are more limited, and questions remain about effective routes of administration, tissue distribution, and long-term effects. Some trials measure NAD+ in blood or tissue, while others assess physical function or metabolic outcomes. Regulatory status differs between countries, and NMN is not universally approved as a dietary supplement or therapeutic agent.
James Windle notes that "prohibitions were enforced in Asian countries while the United States and Western Europe were routinely trading opium"; the "concept of prohibition being a distinctly American construct is, therefore, flawed". Collins concludes, "The United States was a key participant in the [International Drug Control System], albeit frequently an absent one, but hardly the sole force."
Cyclodipeptide synthases (CDPSs) are a newly defined family of peptide-bond forming enzymes that are responsible for the ribosome-independent biosynthesis of various cyclodipeptides, which are the precursors of many natural products with important biological activities. As a substrate for this synthesis, CDPSs use two amino acids activated as aminoacyl-tRNAs (aa-tRNAs), therefore diverting them from the ribosomal machinery. The first member of this family was identified in 2002 during the characterization of the albonoursin biosynthetic pathway in Streptomyces noursei. CDPSs are present in bacteria, fungi, and animal cells.
== Description == Typical Catostylus with chunky appendages and tentacle to go with each. This jellyfish has a sting that causes light pain and a skin rash, but generally poses no serious threat. It is up to 65 cm (26 in) in bell diameter, but a more typical size is 25 cm (10 in) in diameter and 2.5 kg (5.5 lb) in weight. Its colour is variable and can be blue-white, cream, brown, or off-white. The exumbrellar grooves are reddish or purplish brown. C. tagi has gonads along the edge of its stomach in an X shape. It has the octant formation typical of Catostylus jellies, the height of the octants are also variable.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Machine learning algorithms require large amounts of data. The techniques used to acquire this data have raised concerns about privacy, surveillance and copyright. AI-powered devices and services, such as virtual assistants and IoT products, continuously collect personal information, raising concerns about intrusive data gathering and unauthorised access by third parties. The loss of privacy is further exacerbated by AI's ability to process and combine vast amounts of data, potentially leading to a surveillance society where individual activities are constantly monitored and analysed without adequate safeguards or transparency. Sensitive user data collected may include online activity records, geolocation data, video, or audio. For example, in order to build speech recognition algorithms, Amazon has recorded millions of private conversations and allowed temporary workers to listen to and transcribe some of them. Opinions about this widespread surveillance range from those who see it as a necessary evil to those for whom it is clearly unethical and a violation of the right to privacy. AI developers argue that this is the only way to deliver valuable applications and have developed several techniques that attempt to preserve privacy while still obtaining the data, such as data aggregation, de-identification and differential privacy. Since 2016, some privacy experts, such as Cynthia Dwork, have begun to view privacy in terms of fairness.
Evidence of intentional pyre cremation at the HOR-1 site (Malawi) approximately 9500 years before present, representing the oldest adult pyre cremation in the world reported to date, is presented by Cerezo-Román et al. (2026). Chritz et al. (2026) reconstruct the subsistence of foragers and herders from eastern Africa living from 9500 to 230 years before present on the basis of isotopic values of their tooth enamel and bone collagen, reporting evidence dietary diversity in fisher-foragers and in earliest pastoralists from the Turkana Basin (Kenya), and evidence that specialized pastoralist diets happened approximately 1000 years after the introduction of domestic livestock. Martin et al. (2026) reconstruct the human population history in northeastern Africa on the basis of the study of the morphology of bony labyrinths of Late Pleistocene and Holocene individuals, reporting evidence of overall biological discontinuity between foragers and Neolithic food producers in the Middle Nile Valley, but also evidence of limited, localized instances of admixture or continuity between the two groups. Surovell et al. (2026) provide new information on the age of the purported pre-Clovis site Monte Verde II (Chile), and argue that the site cannot be older than the middle Holocene. The first molecular evidence of HPV16 in ancient anatomically modern humans is reported from the study of ancient DNA of the Ust'-Ishim man and Ötzi by Yazigi et al. (2026). Balzeau et al.
=== Mechanism === The components of the ear involved in cauliflower ear are the outer skin, the perichondrium, and the cartilage. The outer ear skin is tightly adherent to the perichondrium because there is almost no subcutaneous fat on the anterior of the ear. This leaves the perichondrium relatively exposed to damage from direct trauma and shear forces, created by a force pushing across the ear like a punch, and increasing the risk of hematoma formation. In an auricular hematoma, blood accumulates between the perichondrium and cartilage. The hematoma mechanically obstructs blood flow from the perichondrium to the avascular cartilage. This lack of perfusion puts the cartilage at risk for becoming necrotic and/or infected. If left untreated, disorganized fibrosis and cartilage formation will occur around the aforementioned cartilaginous components. Consequently, the concave pinna fills with disorganized connective tissue. The cartilage then deforms and kinks, resulting in the distinctive appearance somewhat resembling a cauliflower. Rapid evacuation of the hematoma restores close contact between the cartilage and perichondrium, thereby reducing the likelihood of deformity by minimizing the ischemia that would otherwise result from a remaining hematoma. Auricular hematoma most often occurs in the potential space between the helix and the antihelix (scapha) and extends anteriorly into the fossa triangularis. Less frequently, the hematoma may form in the concha or the area in and around the external auditory meatus.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Production and content == Finely textured meat is produced by heating boneless beef trimmings (the last traces of skeletal muscle meat, scraped, shaved, or pressed from the bone) to 107–109 °F (42–43 °C), removing the melted fat by centrifugal force using a centrifuge, and flash freezing the remaining product to 15 °F (−9 °C) in 90 seconds in a roller press freezer. The roller press freezer is a type of freezer that was invented in 1971 by BPI CEO Eldon Roth that can "freeze packages of meat in two minutes" and began to be used at Beef Products Inc. in 1981. The lean finely textured beef is added to ground beef as a filler or to reduce the overall fat content of ground beef. In March 2012 about 70% of ground beef sold in US supermarkets contained the product. It is also used as a filler in hot dogs produced in the United States. The recovered beef material is extruded through long tubes that are thinner than a pencil, during which time at the BPI processing plant, the meat is exposed to gaseous ammonia. At Cargill Meat Solutions, citric acid is used to kill bacteria such as E. coli and Salmonella instead. Gaseous ammonia in contact with the water in the meat produces ammonium hydroxide. The ammonia sharply increases the pH and damages microscopic organisms, the freezing causes ice crystals to form and puncture the organisms' weakened cell walls, and the mechanical stress destroys the organisms altogether. The product is finely ground, compressed into pellets or blocks, flash frozen and then shipped for use as an additive.
== Background == Myostatin, a member of the transforming growth factor superfamily, is a negative regulator of bone and muscle growth. It may also play a role in obesity, insulin resistance, cardiovascular disease, and chronic kidney disease.
The next day, he warned Kluge that failure to break off the attack would "bleed white" his formations and make them incapable of defence. Kluge was sympathetic since the south flank of the 4th Army had already had to retreat under Red Army pressure and was on the defensive. Hoepner was ordered to pause his attack, with the goal of resuming it on 6 December. On 5 December 1941, with orders to attack the next day, Hoepner called a conference of chiefs-of-staff of his corps. The reports were grim: only four divisions were deemed capable of attack, three of these with limited objectives. The attack was called off; the Red Army launched its winter counter-offensive on the same day.
== Availability == In part thanks to the wide range of similar PSMA radiopharmaceuticals, approval by regulatory authorities is at varying stages. Even so, use has been widespread in some areas, particularly as part of clinical trials. For example, European Association of Urology (EAU) guidelines have included recommendations to perform PSMA PET scans in certain circumstances since 2018, and there has been widespread agreement of the utility of PSMA scanning for several years.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
NMN is nicotinamide mononucleotide, a nucleotide intermediate in the NAD+ salvage pathway. Cells use it to help regenerate NAD+, a coenzyme involved in energy metabolism and cellular signaling. It is present naturally in many organisms and is also produced synthetically for research and consumer products.
NMN is the immediate precursor to NAD+ in the salvage pathway. The enzyme NMN adenylyltransferase adds an adenylate group to NMN to form NAD+. Because NAD+ levels decline with age in some tissues, researchers study whether raising NMN availability can influence NAD+ metabolism.
No. Human evidence is limited, and no regulatory agency has approved NMN for treating or preventing aging. Some trials measure NAD+ metabolites or metabolic markers, but their results do not establish a clinical benefit. Larger, longer studies with standardized endpoints are needed.
NMN stands for nicotinamide mononucleotide. It is a naturally occurring nucleotide and an intermediate in NAD+ biosynthesis.